Mobile Africa Human Trafficking and the Digital Divide 1st Edition by Mirjam Van Reisen, Munyaradzi Mawere, Kinfe Abraha Gebre Egziabher 9956551619 9789956551613

Part I. Theoretical Perspectives

Chapter 1 – Black Holes in the Global Digital Landscape: The Fuelling of Human Trafficking on the Af

Introduction

Methodology

The knowledge society

Architecture of the information network

The geographic misrepresentation of Africa and its effect on latency

Black holes in the global digital landscape

Stuck with this legacy

Digitalisation of human trafficking for ransom

Some empirical evidence

Conclusion

References

Chapter 2 – Network Gatekeepers in Human Trafficking: Profiting from the Misery of Eritreans in the

Introduction

Network gatekeepers

The uneven digitally-connected world

Methodology

The relationship between the gated and the gatekeepers

Alternative information sources

Ability to produce and distribute information

Relationship between the gated and the gatekeepers

Political power

The dependence of Eritrean refugees on human traffickers

Alternatives to migration to Europe

Alternative migration routes or options

Autonomy to choose human smugglers and traffickers

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3 – Bound Together in the Digital Era: Poverty, Migration and Human Trafficking

Introduction

The relationship between human trafficking and mixed migration

Poverty, the main driver of mixed migration

The cycle of poverty and human trafficking

Deliberate poverty

Trafficking in a digital age

Slavery and trafficking for ransom: A profitable industry

An African perspective on combatting human trafficking through the eradication of poverty

Conclusion

References

Chapter 4 – Tortured on Camera: The Use of ICTs in Trafficking for Ransom

Introduction

Research questions

Research method

Documentaries

Sound of Torture

Under the Skin

It Will Be Chaos

Time periods

Theoretical framework

Results

Period 1: 2009–2014

Period 2: 2014–2015

Period 3: 2016-ongoing

Conclusion

References

Part II. Traumatising Trajectories

Chapter 5 – ‘Sons of Isaias’: Slavery and Indefinite National Service in Eritrea

Introduction

Escaping slavery

Methodology

National Service in Eritrea

Warsay Yikaalo

Control of labour and the economy

Control of information

Disruption of social relationships

Choosing to flee

Institutionalised forced labour

No change with peace: The exodus continues

Conclusion

References

Chapter 6 – Journeys of Youth in Digital Africa: Pulled by Connectivity

Introduction

Black holes

Nudging

Methodology

Eritrea: Understanding children and youth

Technology and connectivity in Eritrea

Upon arrival in Ethiopia: Hitsats camp

The conditions in camp

Connectivity and mobile phone use

Children and youth in Hitsats and mobile phones

Social media and secondary movement

Reasons for leaving: Is it only (digital) information?

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 7 – Not a People’s Peace: Eritrean Refugees Fleeing from the Horn of African to Kenya

Introduction

Research question

Methodology

Profile of respondents

Number of newly-arrived Eritrean refugees in Kenya

Departure locations

Reasons for fleeing

Challenges faced by Eritrean refugees transiting to Kenya

Respondent 1

Respondent 2

Respondent 3

Respondent 4

Respondent 5

Respondent 6

Respondent 7

Respondent 8

Respondent 9

Government and non-government assistance

Solutions to refugee problems

Conclusion and recommendations

Limitations of the study

References

Chapter 8 – Israel’s ‘Voluntary’ Return Policy to Expel Refugees: The Illusion of Choice

Introduction

The situation in Israel

Imprisonment – The illusion of choice

Saharonim

Holot

Deportation

Confidential agreements

Promises regarding about third countries

Deportation to Rwanda

Deportation to Uganda

Number of Eritreans and Sudanese deported

Situation after deportation

Conclusion

References

Chapter 9 – The Plight of Refugees in Agadez in Niger: From Crossroad to Dead End

Introduction: Migration, a capricious market

Immersion in Agadez

Migrants

Refugees

Smugglers

Conclusion: Roaming migrants, blocked asylum seekers, unemployed smugglers

References

Chapter 10 – Lawless Libya: Unprotected Refugees Kept Powerless and Silent

Introduction

Methodology

Theory of gatekeeping

Situation in Libya

Gatekeeping in Libya and the situation of refugees as a gated community

Autonomy and alternative information sources

Information production and distribution

Relationship between refugees and the gatekeepers

Political power

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11 – The Voices of African Migrants in Europe: Isaka’s Resilience

Introduction

Isaka’s story

Deciding to leave Guinea

Prisons in Libya

Departure

Across the Mediterranean to Italy

Migration

A problem for senders, receivers and the migrants themselves

In search of dignity and safety

State failure

Limitations of the theory of push and pull

Migrant journeys: Filling a gap in migration studies

Research objectives

Research methodology

Results

Down, but not out

Minors adrift

‘Don’t destroy my hope’

Contradictions and hidden layers of reality

Dreams of helping themselves – and others

Looking forward, not back

Conclusion

References

Chapter 12 – Desperate Journeys: The Need for Trauma Support for Refugees

Introduction

Research question and objectives

Theoretical framework

Trauma of refugees

Social and economic resilience

Psychological effects of trauma on decision to migrate

Research method

Selection of participants

Design of the study

The trauma support programme (SHLCPTS)

Measurement scales

Ethical considerations

Results

Did the SHLCPTS reduce traumatic stress?

Did the SHLCPTS increase social and economic resilience?

Suitability of the SHLCPTS as an app in a refugee camp

Discussion

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 13 – Identifying Survivors of Torture: “I Never Told What Happened to Me in the Sinai”

Introduction

Methodology

Definitions: Human trafficking, slavery and torture

Human trafficking

Slavery

Torture

Procedures for the absorption of torture camp survivors

Identification of slavery survivors

Imprisonment of torture survivors under the Entry to Israel Law

Government policy on the rights of torture survivors

The incarceration of asylum seekers, including survivors of trafficking, torture and slavery

Identification of victims of torture by non-governmental organisations

Conclusion

References

Part III. Psychological Impact of Ongoing Trauma

Chapter 14 – Refugee Parenting in Ethiopia and the Netherlands: Being an Eritrean Parent Outside the

Introduction

Trauma, parenting and child development

The specific impact of trauma on parental self-efficacy

Parental self-efficacy and parenting

Post-traumatic stress and parenting

Method

Sample

Procedure

Measures

Results

High level of parental self-efficacy

Limited use of parental self-efficacy sources

High level of trauma

Discussion

Conclusion

Limitations

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 15 – Journeys of Trust and Hope: Unaccompanied Minors from Eritrea in Ethiopia and the Nethe

Introduction

Feelings as information

Context

Methodology

Ethical considerations

Ethiopia: Trust in the refugee camps

The Netherlands: Dealing with a new hierarchy

Resilience and aspirations: Strategic behaviour versus cooperation

Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 16 – Refugees’ Right to Family Unity in Belgium and the Netherlands: ‘Life is Nothing wi

Introduction

The right to family reunification

Research methodology

Legal background

International law

European law

The Netherlands

Belgium

Constraints on family reunification

The story of Haile and Sophia

Lack of understanding of the process

Onerous family reunification requirements

Inability to collect documents

Official documentation

Inconsistent requirements

Absence of diplomatic relations

Discretionary or unjustified practices

Lack of alternatives to documentation

Conclusion

References

Part IV. Problem Framing

Chapter 17 – The Representation of Human Trafficking in Documentaries: Vulnerable Victims and Shadow

Introduction

Methodology

Theoretical framework

Frame

Problem definition

Push and pull theory

Human trafficking and smuggling

Genderised victims and perpetrators

Trauma

Agency

Five documentaries

It Will be Chaos (2018)

Sound of Torture (2013)

Under the Skin (2014)

The Gatekeepers of Europe (2018)

The Hunt for the General (2016)

Portrayal of refugees

Portrayal of human traffickers and smugglers

Genderisation of victimhood

Trauma

Agency

Conclusion

References

Chapter 18 – Language Dominance in the Framing of Problems and Solutions: The Language of Mobility

Introduction

Method

Dominant Eurocentric formalisations

Contrapuntal developments in the language of mobility

A discussion model

Travels from periphery to the centre (view 1)

Receiving travellers in Europe (view 2)

Remittances and aid (view 3)

Super-colonialism (view 4)

Confrontation: Exposing the ideological framings at play in views 2 and 4

Creation of a ‘straw man’

The criminalisation of migration

African versus European lenses

Conclusion

References

Part V. Extraterritorialisation of Migration and International Responsibilities

Chapter 19 – The Shaping of the EU’s Migration Policy: The Tragedy of Lampedusa as a Turning Point

Introduction

Agenda setting

Lampedusa: The window opens

Framing ‘the problem’ following the shipwreck

A numbers game

The policies: EU migration policy

European Agenda on Migration

Frontex

Externalisation of borders

Deals with third countries

The political mood

Conclusion

References

Chapter 20 – Sudan and the EU: Uneasy Bedfellows

Introduction

Sudanese security state

National Intelligence and Security Service

Police

Armed forces

Scale of the challenge

European response

EU-Sudan security cooperation

Government complicity in human trafficking

Blocking the Mediterranean crossing

Right to asylum or forcible repatriation?

The Netherlands

Italy

Belgium

France

United Kingdom

Conclusion

References

Chapter 21 – Uncomfortable Aid: INGOs in Eritrea

Introduction

Theoretical framework

Methodology

Policy framework for government control

Restrictions on international cooperation

Humanitarian assistance

2001 crackdown and international response

Continued closing of space for INGOs

Ongoing crimes against humanity

INGO engagement in Eritrea

Requirement to work only with government

Complicity with forced labour

Putting local staff in danger

Promoting the government’s agenda

Legitimising the government

Conclusion

References

Chapter 22 – Complicity in Torture: The Accountability of the EU for Human Rights Abuses against Ref

Introduction

The abuse of refugees and migrants in Libya

Alleged European complicity

Possible accountability options

Long-term and sustainable solutions

The end justifies the means

Conclusion

References

Chapter 23 – Playing Cat and Mouse: How Europe Evades Responsibility for its Role in Human Rights Ab

Introduction

Examples of migration control policies

Italian and European support for Libya

Returns from Libya to countries of origin

Israel’s agreements with Rwanda and Uganda

Responsibility of states

State actors

Non-state actors

Derived responsibility

Responsibility of the EU and its agencies

The European Union

Frontex

EASO

Conclusion

References

About the Authors

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